24 The linguistic interdependence hypothesis proposes that bilingual individuals can acquire sufficient levels of L2 proficiency if they experience adequate L2 exposure and effective L2 instruction (Cummins, 1976, 1979, 1980). However, underdeveloped L1 abilities may restrict the individual’s progress in acquiring L2 proficiency. The strength of the L1 directly transfers to the L2, and insufficient L2 acquisition will likely persist until the learner advances their foundational L1 abilities (Cummins, 1979, 1980, 1984, 1991, 2017). To refine L2 instruction, Stephen Krashen developed the comprehensible input hypothesis as a theoretical framework for transitioning L2 learners from rote memorization methods toward sustained engagement in meaningful interaction and the development of comprehensive linguistic competence (Krashen, 1981, 1982; Krashen & Seliger, 1975). Krashen (1982) also analyzed outside variables contributing to the bilingual individual’s L2 success, conceptualizing the affective filter. Learners with a low affective filter who display high motivation, self-confidence, and minimal anxiety acquire the L2 more successfully than those with a high affective filter who exhibit low motivation, selfconfidence, and high anxiety (Krashen, 1982). Bilingual Education In 1922, the Texas Department of Education, currently named the Texas Education Agency, published the Public School Laws of the State of Texas to help the state regulate education. Section 391 specifically mandated that all instruction in Texas classrooms be conducted exclusively in English (Public School Laws of the State of Texas, 1922). Additionally, Section 392 mandated Englishonly communication by teachers, administrators, and school officials within classrooms and the school system, with Section 393 specifying the penalties for violations, which ranged from misdemeanor charges and fines up to $100 to certification revocation and removal from office (Public School Laws of the State of Texas, 1922). The laws permitted the teaching of additional languages, such as Spanish and Latin, as an elective at the secondary level (Public School Laws of the State of Texas, 1922). However, the majority of Spanish-speaking children abandoned their education in elementary school, with only a small fraction progressing to secondary education (San Miguel, 1995). In 1973, Texas enacted a landmark educational reform with the Bilingual Education and Training Act, or Senate Bill 121 (S. Resolution 121, 1973). Senate Bill 121 mandated bilingual instruction in Texas public elementary schools where 20 or more students in a grade level demonstrated limited English proficiency (Rodríguez, 1995; S. Resolution 121, 1973). Texas currently offers six bilingual programs in public elementary schools, as seen in Table 1. Students who continue higher academic instruction in their L1 build a stronger L2 (Cummins, 1979, 1980, 1984), thus increasing academic achievement (Cárdenas-Hagan et al., 2007; Feinauer et al., 2013), as seen in Table 1 with STAAR scores in two-way dual-language programs. EBs in twoway dual-language programs demonstrate higher academic outcomes compared to any other bilingual program, which Texas educational policymakers have acknowledged. In 2001, the Texas Legislature enacted Senate Bill 467, which amended the Texas Education Code to promote two-way dual-language models across school districts (S. Resolution 467, 2001). Senate Bill 467 encouraged the creation of educational environments, such as the twoway dual-language program, where approximately half of the student population consisted of native English speakers acquiring an L2, such as Spanish, while the other half consisted of EBs (S. Resolution 467, 2001). The integrated approach in a two-way dual-language program builds upon the theoretical framework of additive bilingualism (Lambert, 1973) and the linguistic interdependence hypothesis (Cummins, 1979, 1980). Students from diverse linguistic backgrounds can simultaneously develop proficiency in both languages while acquiring academic content knowledge at a commensurate pace. A two-way dual-language model leverages peer-to-peer interactions as a means of authentic language exposure and practice, enhancing both receptive and productive language skills in the target languages (Feinauer et al., 2013). However, as native English speakers advance in a two-way dual-language program, Bernadette Rose-Garcia White, Ed.D.
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