Journal of K-12 Educational Research 27 scores among the various groups, the differences did not reach statistical significance. The results suggest that factors such as ethnicity and SES status did not significantly impact sentence fluency performance in this study. However, the data presented specific instances of group performance disparities, as seen in the mean difference between Hispanic and White participants, with Hispanic participants scoring higher than White participants. Furthermore, students from low SES households demonstrated the highest mean score among all groups. Although the difference did not reach statistical significance in this sample, further research with larger samples or additional variables may be necessary to draw more definitive conclusions about the influences on L2 sentence fluency development among different demographic groups and SES status. The analysis for RQ3 demonstrated a statistically significant, moderate positive correlation between picture vocabulary and sentence fluency post-test scores, indicating an important relationship between the two aspects of Spanish L2 proficiency and achievement. Students who excelled in picture vocabulary were likely also to demonstrate strong performance in sentence fluency, suggesting the two skills might develop in tandem or share common underlying factors. However, several outliers appeared in the data for RQ3, which can significantly influence the interpretation of the relationship between picture vocabulary and sentence fluency. Outliers could have artificially strengthened the correlation, leading to misleading conclusions about the strength of the relationship between picture vocabulary and sentence fluency. A larger sample size may have yielded more reliable correlation estimates and mitigated outside, influential factors. The RQ4 analysis revealed a strong positive relationship between listening comprehension and sentence reading fluency, with listening comprehension significantly predicting sentence reading fluency outcomes, while picture vocabulary showed no significant impact. A very weak relationship between picture vocabulary and sentence reading fluency emerged, showing no significant predictive power for sentence reading fluency outcomes when including listening comprehension in the model. The findings suggested that enhancing listening comprehension may provide greater benefits for improving sentence reading fluency compared to focusing solely on picture vocabulary. Limitations A significant limitation of the current study was the sample size. For RQs 1 and 3, the sample consisted of only 41 participants, which constrained the generalizability of the findings to larger populations and diminished the statistical power of the analysis, particularly for the dependent-samples t-test conducted in RQ1. The relatively small sample may have limited the ability to detect meaningful effects or relationships that could be present in a broader population. A larger sample would also have provided more substantial estimates of the correlation for RQ3, allowing for more confident conclusions regarding the relationship between the variables across a broader population. The restricted time frame in RQ1 constituted a significant limitation. The pre-post design was limited to capturing only short-term changes and did not provide insights into long-term retention or ongoing improvements in Spanish L2 proficiency, skills, or achievement. Collecting data over one semester may not allow sufficient time for participants to demonstrate meaningful changes in their L2 proficiency and skills. Additionally, the inability to conduct a longitudinal study presented a significant challenge. A longitudinal study would have facilitated the repeated collection of data from the same subjects, thereby offering valuable insights into trends and developmental changes over time. Moreover, a longitudinal investigation could have illuminated the developmental trajectory of the relationship between L2 picture vocabulary and L2 sentence reading fluency, while concurrently tracking the progression of Spanish L2 proficiency in addressing RQ3. Finally, the lack of a control group contributed to another limitation. The current study did not include data from a control group, making it difficult to attribute the observed changes solely to the Risas y Sonrisas
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